Southern African Humanities

Arguments and evidence in rock art research: an assessment of two geomythological cases

David Witelson — 2026-07-24

Different evaluations of the evidence underlie contrasting interpretations of southern African rock art. Researchers often come from a range of disciplines and tend to think in terms of their own discipline. Departing from the anthropologically informed approach to southern African rock art, several palaeontologists propose that some southern African groups resemble Western palaeontologists in that they may have recognized fossils as traces of extinct animals, which they might have explained in ‘geomyths’ and reconstructed in rock art. An appraisal of two related cases is presented. In each case, an evaluation of the evidence finds that it does not support the argument. Geomythology is found to lack a convincing theory of how fossils become culturally meaningful within a given worldview. The insufficiency of the supporting myth and rock art evidence, and geomythology’s poor theoretical capacity to interpret socio-cultural human behaviours from myths and rock art, are grounds to reject the validity of the conclusions in both cases. Sufficient evidence and improvements to theory and method are needed before geomythology can contribute to southern African rock art studies.

The canine connection III: dogs and southern African farmers

Peter Mitchell — 2026-08-04

Dogs have been part of southern African farming communities for well over a millennium. This paper reviews the archaeological evidence for when that association may have begun, raising the possibility that an initial introduction connected to the beginnings of trade along the East African coast may help explain the fact that the earliest secure dates for dogs in the region come from KwaZulu-Natal. Noting the potential role of infectious disease as a constraint on their expansion through tropical Africa and considering whether distinct breeds of indigenous dog can be identified, it then uses ethnographic, historical and archaeological evidence to explore two main themes: the roles played by dogs as hunting aids and guardians and their importance in the social and ideological realm, particularly as a means by which to offer subtle comment on relations between people in a socially tolerated manner. The paper ends by setting out a research agenda for developing a canine archaeology of southern African farming communities, emphasizing the importance of building a robust dataset of remains with identifications confirmed and dated using multiple proxies.

Revisiting the age of southern Africa’s first dogs

Edwin N. Wilmsen — 2026-08-07

Dogs have long been part of southern African Iron Age farming communities. This paper reviews the archaeological evidence for widely cited claims of their presence in the 1st millennium AD at two sites, Bosutswe in eastern Botswana and Diamant in the Limpopo province of South Africa. Detailed analysis of the original excavation records and information regarding the radiocarbon dates obtained at these sites, as well as the ceramic associations of the skeletal remains in question, show that these claims cannot be confirmed. At Bosutswe, instead of appearing c. AD 700, there is no credible evidence for the presence of domestic dogs before the Late Toutswe phase of the site’s occupation in the 12th century AD. At Diamant, where a date of c. AD 570 has frequently been cited, available data do not permit the dog remains found there to be closely linked to any of the site’s radiocarbon dates, although a late-1st-millennium AD age is probable. With Bosutswe, Diamant and a second Botswanan site—Taukome—removed from the equation, the oldest credible evidence for domestic dogs in southern Africa currently comes from the Thukela Basin of KwaZulu-Natal, beginning in the 7th/8th centuries AD. Recommendations for careful assessment of these and similar claims are made.

The king, the smith and the war hero: Zulu Kingdom settlement in the eastern eMakhosini

Kent Fowler — 2026-10-11

Archaeological research has provided insights into major military events and life in elite settlements that cannot be gained solely through the study of a vast archival record and documented oral history pertaining to the independent Zulu Kingdom era (c. 1819–1879). There are still gaps in our understanding of the early decades of the kingdom and limited understanding of the non-elite peoples who formed its economic and social foundation. In this paper, we report on recent survey and test excavations in the eastern eMakhosini region, the traditional heartland of the Zulu Kingdom, that aimed to clarify the nature and characteristics of suspected early amakhanda and non-elite settlements. Among our results, we suggest that the settlement associated with Shaka kaSenzangakhona—kwaGibixhegu or kwaBulawayo-1 may have shifted in size and organization during his transition from chief to king while resident in the eMakhosini. We also report the first definitive evidence for an iron smith’s homestead of the precolonial era in this region, and we distinguish a homestead whose head received the highest military honours by a Zulu king—the ‘king’s awards’. Surveys by two teams failed to locate the Divisional ikhanda of kwaKhangela known to be burned during the British advance on oNdini in July of 1879.